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Research Article | | Peer-Reviewed

The Impact of Human Encroachment in the Habitat of Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibious) in Mbam et Djerem National Park, Cameroon

Melle Ekane Maurice*,  Agbor James Ayamba,  Ekili Betty Akuh,  Nkwelle Emmanuel Ebong,  Ebane Koubi Nadine,  Yiedjou Blessing Desiree Rebecca,  Elvis Tetuh Tendong,  Etone Carl Ngole,  Alusombom Godswill,  Mary Ashu Mbi
Published in International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management (Volume 11, Issue 1)
Received: 9 January 2026     Accepted: 22 January 2026     Published: 24 February 2026
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Abstract

This study explores the relationship between vegetation quality and human encroachment in the habitat of the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) at Mbam et Djerem National Park, Cameroon. As a critical habitat for diverse flora and fauna, the park faces increasing pressure from human activities, including agriculture, logging, and settlement expansion. Our research aim was to assess how these activities impact vegetation quality and subsequently affect hippopotamus populations. Research data collection was based on categorizing various methods of human encroachment. Our findings indicate that regions experiencing high levels of encroachment exhibited significant declines in vegetation quality, which may limit the availability of food sources for hippopotamuses. Additionally, we conducted interviews with local communities to understand their perceptions of wildlife and land use. The results reveal a complex interplay between conservation efforts and the socioeconomic needs of local populations. The vegetation quality revealed a significant association on photo-period X2 = 19.917 df=4 P=0.001, animals habitat X2 = 21.138 df=4 P=0.000, River-water quality X2 = 10.687 df=4 P=0.03, and animal behavior X2 = 19.912 df=4 P=0.001 respectively. Additionally, human encroachment into the animals habitat recorded a significant link on food resources r=0.195 P<0.05, animal behavior X2 = 3.063 df=4 P<0.05, and Conservation Measures X2 = 9.363 df=4 P<0.05 respectively. Also, fuel-wood gathering 50% recorded the highest encroachment threat, while poaching 38% and crop-farming 12% recorded the least threats respectively. This study emphasized the urgent need for integrated management strategies that balance human development and wildlife conservation to ensure the long-term survival of hippopotamus populations in Mbam et Djerem National Park. Our findings contribute to the broader discourse on habitat conservation in the face of anthropogenic pressures in Central Africa.

Published in International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management (Volume 11, Issue 1)
DOI 10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.14
Page(s) 35-43
Creative Commons

This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.

Copyright

Copyright © The Author(s), 2026. Published by Science Publishing Group
Previous article
Keywords

Human Encroachment, Hippopotamus, Wildlife, Local Population, Vegetation Quality

1. Introduction
Human encroachment into wildlife habitats has become a significant concern in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in protected areas where biodiversity conservation is critical
[2]
. The hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), a species dependent on aquatic and semi-aquatic ecosystems, is increasingly threatened by habitat degradation resulting from human activities. This literature review examines the influence of human encroachment on vegetation quality within hippopotamus habitats in protected areas, highlighting key studies and findings. Hippopotamuses inhabit rivers, lakes, and wetlands, relying on lush vegetation along water bodies for feeding. Their habitat generally encompasses savannas, grasslands, and riverine forests, which provide essential resources. The quality and availability of this vegetation are crucial for their survival and reproductive success
[32]
. Human encroachment manifests in various forms, including agriculture, urbanization, logging, and infrastructure development. These activities often lead to habitat fragmentation, degradation, and loss of biodiversity (
[14]
. In many sub-Saharan countries, increasing human populations exert pressure on land resources, pushing agricultural activities closer to protected areas
[12]
.
Agricultural expansion is one of the primary drivers of habitat loss in sub-Saharan Africa. Studies have shown that encroachment for farming significantly alters vegetation composition and structure, often leading to the removal of native species critical for the diet of hippopotamuses
[4]
. This encroachment not only reduces the available forage but also may introduce invasive plant species that further degrade native habitats. Urbanization, including the development of roads and settlements, impacts hippopotamus habitats by increasing human-wildlife conflict and disrupting animal movement patterns
[55]
. Infrastructure development often leads to habitat fragmentation, isolating populations and reducing genetic diversity. The degradation of vegetation quality due to human encroachment is documented in several studies
[19]
. Vegetation quality is often assessed using metrics such as species richness, biomass, and health indices like the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI).
Research indicates that areas subject to high levels of human encroachment experience a decline in species richness. For instance, a study by researchers in Kenya demonstrated that hippopotamus habitats adjacent to agricultural lands had significantly fewer native plant species, which are vital for their diet
[52]
. Human activities also lead to reduced biomass in hippopotamus habitats. Studies using NDVI measurements have shown that encroached areas exhibit lower vegetation health and productivity
[40]
. This decline in biomass directly affects the availability of food resources for hippopotamuses, necessitating longer foraging distances and increasing energy expenditure. The decline in vegetation quality has direct consequences on hippopotamus populations. Reduced food availability can lead to malnutrition, lower reproductive rates, and increased mortality
[64]
. Additionally, habitat degradation can exacerbate human-wildlife conflicts, as hippos may venture into agricultural lands in search of food, leading to negative interactions with local communities
[15]
. Involving local communities in conservation efforts can help balance human needs with wildlife protection
[7]
. Sustainable land-use practices that integrate agriculture and conservation are crucial.
Strengthening management practices within protected areas can help mitigate encroachment effects
[11]
. This includes establishing buffer zones and enforcing regulations against illegal land use
[42]
. Initiatives aimed at restoring degraded habitats can improve vegetation quality and enhance the resilience of hippopotamus populations
[5]
. Human encroachment poses significant challenges to the quality of vegetation in hippopotamus habitats within protected areas in sub-Saharan Africa
[24]
. The interplay between agricultural expansion
[46]
, urbanization, and habitat degradation necessitates a multifaceted approach to conservation
[34]
. By recognizing the critical importance of vegetation quality and implementing integrated management strategies, it is possible to protect both hippopotamus populations and their habitats in the face of increasing human pressures
[39]
.
2. Materials and Method
2.1. Description of the Study Area
Mbam et Djerem National Park is located in the central region of Cameroon, between latitudes 4° 45' and 5° 30' N and longitudes 12° 30' and 13° 15' E
[49]
. Established in 2000, the park covers approximately 4,160-4,260 square kilometers, spanning across the Mbam and Djerem divisions
[32]
(MINFOF, 2007). This location is a crucial ecological zone, serving as a habitat for diverse wildlife, including the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius)
[21]
. The park is situated on the southern slopes of the Adamawa Plateau, east of the Yoko–Tibati road (Figure 1). The climate of Mbam et Djerem National Park is characterized by a tropical rainforest climate, influenced by its elevation and geographical location
[50]
. The region experiences two distinct seasons: a wet season from May to October and a dry season from November to April. The wet season can be further divided into a small rainy season from March to June and a big rainy season from July to October. Average temperatures range from 20°C to 30°C, with higher temperatures typically recorded during the dry season
[62]
. Average annual rainfall is approximately 1,500 mm, with peak precipitation occurring between June and August
[35]
. These climatic conditions support the park's rich biodiversity, providing an ideal habitat for both flora and fauna. However, climate change is altering rainfall patterns and water availability
[47]
. The vegetation of park is predominantly composed of tropical rainforest and savanna ecosystems
[18]
. The park is located at the transition zone between the forested south and savanna-dominated north. These dense forested areas line the banks of rivers and provide critical habitat for aquatic and semi-aquatic species, including the hippopotamus
[13]
. Open savanna areas are interspersed within the park, dominated by grasses and scattered trees
[60]
.
Figure 1. Map of Mbam et Djerem National Park: Source
[42]
.
The presence of wetlands is vital for the park's hydrology and serves as breeding grounds for many species
[36]
. The park has a mix of rolling grasslands, forest patches, river valleys, and wetlands. Forested areas feature hardwood trees, lianas, and dense undergrowth, while the northern savannas are characterized by grasses and acacia trees
[1]
. Mbam et Djerem National Park boasts a rich biodiversity and is home to a variety of animal species
[8]
. Lowland forests harbor giant trees like sapele and iroko, along with a variety of lianas, epiphytes, and shrubs
[20]
. Savannas and grassy areas have a diversity of grasses, acacias, and baobabs
[62]
. The park is a sanctuary for diverse wildlife, including several endangered species. Notable fauna includes elephants, buffalo, lions, chimpanzees, antelopes, pangolins, leopards, crocodiles, fish, and various bird species
[51]
. The park is home to more than 60 mammal species, 65 species of reptiles, well over 500 species of birds, and 30 species of fish
[49]
. The drainage system of Mbam et Djerem National Park is characterized by a network of rivers and streams that flow through the park, significantly influencing its ecological dynamics. The Mbam and Djerem rivers are the primary water bodies, and the Djerem River becomes the Sanaga further south
[50]
.
2.2. Research Data Collection and Analysis
The study of vegetation quality and human encroachment in hippopotamus habitats in Mbam et Djerem National Park, necessitates a systematic approach to data collection and analysis. Classification of vegetation types was done using botanical surveys. Field observations using binoculars and cameras to record hippopotamus behavior and activity levels at different times of day.
This approach allowed for a comprehensive understanding of the ecological dynamics and human factors affecting vegetation quality in the park. Also, interviews were conducted with local communities, park rangers, and conservationists to gather qualitative data on human activities, perceptions of hippopotamus conservation, and changes in vegetation quality
[16]
. Distribute questionnaires to local residents to collect data on land use, agricultural practices, and the perceived impact of human encroachment on local biodiversity was used
[26]
. Inferential statistics, such as chi-square and correlation were used to assess relationships between variables, such as vegetation quality and various types of human encroachment
[66]
.
3. Results
The vegetation quality revealed a significant association on photo-period X2 = 19.917 df=4 P=0.001 (Figure 2), animals habitat X2 = 21.138 df=4 P=0.000 (Figure 3), River-water quality X2 = 10.687 df=4 P=0.03 (Figure 4), and animal behavior X2 = 19.912 df=4 P=0.001 (Figure 5) respectively. The influence of vegetation quality on photoperiod, hippopotamus habitat, river water quality, and animal behavior underscores the interconnectedness of ecological processes. High-quality vegetation not only enhances the growth and reproduction of plants but also plays a vital role in providing suitable habitats for wildlife, maintaining water quality, and shaping animal behaviors. Effective conservation strategies must consider these relationships to promote the health and sustainability of ecosystems, particularly in areas impacted by human activities.
Figure 2. Vegetation Quality and Photo-period.
Photoperiod, defined as the duration of light exposure in a 24-hour period, significantly affects plant growth and development. Vegetation quality, characterized by species composition, density, and health, can influence photoperiod effects on plant phenology. Different plant species respond variably to photoperiod changes, affecting their flowering and fruiting times
[58]
. High-quality vegetation often leads to synchronized growth and reproductive cycles, enhancing ecosystem productivity. The structure of the plant canopy affects the amount of light reaching the understory, which in turn influences the growth of shade-tolerant species
[9]
. This interaction can create microclimates that affect the overall photoperiod experienced by various plant layers.
Figure 3. Vegetation and Habitat.
The quality of vegetation directly impacts the habitat suitability for hippopotamuses, which rely on specific environmental conditions for survival. Hippopotamuses primarily feed on grasses and aquatic plants. The presence of high-quality vegetation in their habitat is essential for providing adequate forage
[21]
. Overgrazing and habitat degradation lead to reduced forage quality and availability, impacting hippo populations. Vegetation along riverbanks serves as a buffer, filtering pollutants and sediments before they enter the water
[53]
.
Figure 4. Vegetation and Water Quality.
The quality of riparian vegetation is crucial for maintaining the ecological integrity of hippopotamus habitats. Vegetation influences nutrient cycling through processes such as litter decomposition and root exudation. High-quality vegetation enhances soil health and contributes to nutrient retention, which can improve water quality by reducing nutrient runoff into rivers
[10]
. Dense vegetation along riverbanks helps prevent soil erosion, which can lead to sedimentation in water bodies. This sedimentation can degrade water quality and affect aquatic life
[29]
.
Figure 5. Vegetation and Animal Behavior.
The behavior of animals, including hippopotamuses and other species, is influenced by the quality of vegetation in their habitats. High-quality vegetation influences the foraging behavior of herbivores, including hippopotamuses. When vegetation is abundant and nutritious, animals may exhibit increased grazing duration and frequency
[31]
. Vegetation quality affects the availability of cover for animals, influencing their behavior in terms of foraging and predator avoidance. Dense and healthy vegetation provides better shelter from predators, which is crucial for the survival of many species
[33]
. The availability of high-quality vegetation can influence social behavior among hippopotamuses, affecting group dynamics and territoriality. Animals are more likely to establish larger groups in areas with abundant resources, leading to complex social structures
[56]
.
Figure 6. Human Encroachment and Food Resources.
Additionally, human encroachment into the animals habitat recorded a significant link on food resources r=0.195 P<0.05 (Figure 6), animal behavior X2 = 3.063 df=4 P<0.05 (Figure 7), and Conservation Measures X2 = 9.363 df=4 P<0.05 (Figure 8) respectively. Human encroachment into hippopotamus habitats poses significant challenges to food resources, animal behavior, and conservation efforts. The degradation of natural habitats, competition for resources, and altered animal behaviors highlight the urgent need for effective conservation strategies. By implementing protected areas, engaging local communities, restoring degraded habitats, and enforcing sound policies, it is possible to mitigate the impacts of human encroachment and promote sustainable coexistence between humans and wildlife. Understanding these interactions is vital for developing effective conservation strategies that balance human needs with wildlife protection. Human encroachment often results in habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, urbanization, and infrastructure development.
Figure 7. Human Encroachment and Animal Behaviour.
The conversion of natural habitats into agricultural land significantly reduces the availability of natural forage for hippopotamuses
[28]
. As grazing areas diminish, the quality and quantity of food resources decline, directly affecting hippopotamus populations. Runoff from agricultural fields and urban areas introduces pollutants and nutrients into water bodies, leading to eutrophication. This process can degrade water quality and reduce the availability of aquatic plants, which are vital food sources for hippopotamuses
[61]
. Increased demand for water resources can lead to conflicts between human agricultural needs and the natural habitats of hippopotamuses. Reduced access to freshwater can limit the availability of food and affect the overall health of hippo populations
[45]
. As natural grazing areas become scarce, hippopotamuses may alter their foraging habits, leading to increased movement distances and changes in diet composition
[37]
. This can result in nutritional stress as they may be forced to consume less preferred or lower-quality forage.
Figure 8. Human Encroachment and Conservation Measures.
The presence of humans and associated disturbances (e.g., noise, vehicle traffic) can lead to changes in hippo behavior, including increased aggression and reduced social interactions
[17]
. This stress can negatively impact reproduction and overall health. Roads and other infrastructure can fragment habitats, leading to isolated populations and affecting migration patterns. Fragmentation can restrict access to essential resources, further exacerbating the pressure on hippo populations
[23]
. Designating areas as national parks or reserves helps to mitigate the impacts of human encroachment. These protected areas can provide safe havens for hippos and their food resources
[7]
. Community-based conservation initiatives that involve local stakeholders in protecting hippopotamus habitats can be effective. Providing incentives for sustainable land-use practices can help reduce human-wildlife conflicts
[6]
. Initiatives aimed at restoring degraded habitats, such as reforestation and wetland restoration, can enhance food availability for hippopotamuses. These projects can also improve water quality and overall ecosystem health
[5]
. Implementing and enforcing regulations that limit agricultural expansion and protect natural habitats can mitigate the effects of human encroachment. Policies that promote sustainable land use and resource management are essential for long-term conservation success
[57]
.
Figure 9. Human encroachment threats.
Also, fuel-wood gathering 50% recorded the highest encroachment threat, while poaching 38% and crop-farming 12% recorded the least threats respectively (Figure 9). Human activities have long been recognized as significant threats to wildlife habitats, particularly in developing regions where reliance on natural resources is high. The relative impacts of fuel-wood gathering, poaching, and crop-farming on wildlife habitat encroachment highlight the need for targeted conservation strategies. With fuel-wood gathering representing the highest encroachment threat at 50%, followed by poaching at 38%, and crop-farming at 12%, it is essential to address the underlying socioeconomic factors driving these activities. Effective conservation measures must focus on sustainable resource management, community engagement, and the strengthening of enforcement mechanisms to combat poaching. By understanding these dynamics, stakeholders can better balance human needs with wildlife conservation.
Fuel-wood gathering is a primary source of energy for many rural communities, particularly in developing countries. A significant proportion of households rely on fuel-wood for cooking and heating, resulting in extensive harvesting from nearby forests
[40]
. This reliance often leads to unsustainable practices, contributing to habitat degradation and deforestation. The extraction of fuel-wood can lead to significant deforestation, particularly in biodiverse areas. This loss of vegetation directly affects wildlife habitats, reducing available resources for various species
[59]
. Deforestation associated with fuel-wood collection contributes to soil erosion and degradation, further compromising ecosystem health and resilience
[63]
. In resource-poor settings, communities may prioritize immediate energy needs over long-term environmental sustainability, exacerbating the encroachment threat
[41]
. The illegal wildlife trade, including the poaching of large mammals for meat, ivory, and other body parts, significantly impacts animal populations
[54]
.
4. Discussion
Hippopotamuses (Hippopotamus amphibius) are critical components of aquatic ecosystems in sub-Saharan Africa. However, their habitats in protected areas are increasingly threatened by various human activities
[43]
. This literature review examines the impacts of human activities—such as agriculture, urbanization, tourism, and poaching—on the habitat of hippopotamuses in protected areas, highlighting the challenges and implications for conservation
[37]
. The conversion of land for agriculture often leads to significant habitat loss. Research shows that agricultural activities encroach upon riparian zones critical for hippopotamus foraging and breeding
[28]
. The removal of vegetation alters the landscape, reducing available food resources. The use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture can lead to nutrient runoff into rivers and lakes, causing eutrophication. This process degrades aquatic ecosystems, impacting the quality of food resources available to hippopotamuses
[61]
. The findings underscore the critical importance of implementing effective conservation measures in Mbam et Djerem National Park. Strategies must focus on habitat restoration, sustainable agriculture, and community engagement to mitigate the impacts of human activities. Enhancing the protection of riparian zones and promoting the regeneration of native vegetation are essential steps to improving the quality of the habitat for hippopotamuses. Furthermore, involving local communities in conservation efforts can foster a sense of stewardship and promote coexistence between humans and wildlife
[44]
.
Human impact on the habitat and vegetation of hippopotamuses in Mbam et Djerem National Park is profound and multifaceted. The degradation of natural habitats, decline in vegetation quality, and increasing human-wildlife conflicts pose significant challenges to the conservation of this iconic species
[48]
. A holistic approach that integrates ecological, social, and economic perspectives is essential for safeguarding the future of hippopotamuses and their habitats within this vital national park. Roads, housing, and other infrastructure associated with urban growth can fragment hippopotamus habitats, isolating populations and limiting their movement
[23]
. This fragmentation can lead to reduced genetic diversity and increased human-wildlife conflicts. Through concerted conservation efforts and community involvement, it is possible to create a sustainable future that respects both human livelihoods and the ecological integrity of Mbam et Djerem National Park. Hippopotamuses may venture into agricultural lands or urban areas in search of food and water, leading to conflicts with local communities over crop damage and safety concerns
[30]
. Such conflicts often result in retaliatory killings and further habitat degradation. Increased tourist activities can lead to habitat disturbances, affecting hippopotamus behavior, particularly during breeding and feeding periods
[3]
. Noise and human presence can stress animals, disrupting their natural behaviors.
The economic value associated with poached goods often leads to increased hunting pressures on vulnerable species. The removal of apex predators and key herbivores through poaching can disrupt ecological balance, leading to verpopulation of some species and decline of others, affecting overall biodiversity
[22]
. Weak enforcement of wildlife protection laws, often exacerbated by corruption, limits the effectiveness of conservation efforts aimed at reducing poaching
[12]
. While crop-farming contributes to habitat encroachment, its impact is comparatively lower than that of fuel-wood gathering and poaching. The conversion of forests into agricultural land can lead to habitat fragmentation, but agricultural practices can sometimes coexist with wildlife, especially in areas with sustainable farming methods
[25]
. Implementing agroecological practices and establishing wildlife corridors can help maintain biodiversity while allowing for agricultural production
[38]
. These approaches can reduce the encroachment threat posed by crop-farming. Providing education and incentives for sustainable farming practices can help reduce habitat encroachment while improving food security for local populations
[27]
.
Increased water demand for tourism facilities can reduce water availability in hippopotamus habitats, affecting their access to essential resources
[7]
. Additionally, waste from tourism can pollute water bodies, further degrading habitat quality. The illegal trade of hippopotamus meat and ivory from their teeth can lead to population declines. Poaching activities often occur in and around protected areas, undermining conservation efforts
[54]
. Hippopotamuses play a crucial role in their ecosystems by maintaining water channels and facilitating nutrient cycling. Their decline can disrupt these ecological functions, leading to shifts in species composition and ecosystem health
[22]
. Engaging local communities in conservation efforts is paramount. Programs that promote sustainable land-use practices and provide alternative livelihoods can help reduce pressure on hippopotamus habitats
[6]
. Enforcing regulations that limit agricultural expansion and poaching activities is crucial for habitat conservation
[65]
. Additionally, establishing buffer zones around protected areas can mitigate human-wildlife conflicts and habitat degradation
[12]
. Research and monitoring are vital for understanding the impacts of human activities on hippopotamus habitats. Regular ecological assessments can help identify changes in habitat quality and population dynamics, informing adaptive management strategies to address emerging threats
[57]
.
5. Conclusion
The Mbam et Djerem National Park in Cameroon serves as a critical habitat for the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), a species that plays a significant ecological role in maintaining the health of aquatic ecosystems. However, human activities pose substantial threats to both the habitat and vegetation within this protected area. This conclusion synthesizes the key findings regarding the impacts of human encroachment, highlighting the urgent need for comprehensive conservation strategies. Human activities significantly influence the habitat of hippopotamuses in protected areas, leading to habitat degradation, water quality issues, and increased human-wildlife conflicts. Addressing these challenges requires integrated conservation strategies that involve local communities, strengthen policy frameworks, and promote sustainable land-use practices. By understanding the multifaceted impacts of human activities, stakeholders can develop effective conservation measures to protect hippopotamus habitats and ensure the long-term survival of this iconic species. The quality of vegetation in the park has been adversely affected by human activities. Deforestation and land conversion have led to a decline in native plant species, which are vital for maintaining the health of the ecosystem
[2]
. The resulting loss of biodiversity undermines the resilience of the habitat, making it more susceptible to further degradation. Additionally, pollution from agricultural runoff has contributed to the deterioration of water bodies, further impacting aquatic vegetation that hippopotamuses rely on for sustenance
[39]
. As human encroachment continues, conflicts between local communities and hippopotamuses have intensified. The proximity of agricultural fields to hippopotamus habitats often leads to crop damage, resulting in retaliatory actions against these animals. Such conflicts not only threaten the lives of hippopotamuses but also exacerbate the challenges of conservation within the park
[46]
. The growing tension highlights the need for sustainable land-use practices that balance human needs with wildlife conservation. Ongoing research is essential to monitor the effects of human activities on hippopotamus habitats and vegetation. Studies that assess the long-term impacts of land-use changes, water quality, and vegetation dynamics will provide valuable insights for adaptive management strategies. Additionally, understanding the socio-economic factors driving human encroachment will be critical for developing targeted interventions that address both conservation and community needs.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest related to this manuscript. None of the authors received funding or support from any organization that could influence the research. Additionally, authors have no personal relationships that could potentially bias the research or its outcomes. Also, authors have no competing interests or affiliations with organizations that might be perceived as influencing the manuscript. This statement is intended to ensure transparency and uphold the integrity of the research.
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    Maurice, M. E., Ayamba, A. J., Akuh, E. B., Ebong, N. E., Nadine, E. K., et al. (2026). The Impact of Human Encroachment in the Habitat of Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibious) in Mbam et Djerem National Park, Cameroon. International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management, 11(1), 35-43. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.14

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    Maurice, M. E.; Ayamba, A. J.; Akuh, E. B.; Ebong, N. E.; Nadine, E. K., et al. The Impact of Human Encroachment in the Habitat of Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibious) in Mbam et Djerem National Park, Cameroon. Int. J. Nat. Resour. Ecol. Manag. 2026, 11(1), 35-43. doi: 10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.14

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    AMA Style

    Maurice ME, Ayamba AJ, Akuh EB, Ebong NE, Nadine EK, et al. The Impact of Human Encroachment in the Habitat of Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibious) in Mbam et Djerem National Park, Cameroon. Int J Nat Resour Ecol Manag. 2026;11(1):35-43. doi: 10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.14

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  • @article{10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.14,
  author = {Melle Ekane Maurice and Agbor James Ayamba and Ekili Betty Akuh and Nkwelle Emmanuel Ebong and Ebane Koubi Nadine and Yiedjou Blessing Desiree Rebecca and Elvis Tetuh Tendong and Etone Carl Ngole and Alusombom Godswill and Mary Ashu Mbi},
  title = {The Impact of Human Encroachment in the Habitat of Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibious) in Mbam et Djerem National Park, Cameroon},
  journal = {International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management},
  volume = {11},
  number = {1},
  pages = {35-43},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.14},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.14},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijnrem.20261101.14},
  abstract = {This study explores the relationship between vegetation quality and human encroachment in the habitat of the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) at Mbam et Djerem National Park, Cameroon. As a critical habitat for diverse flora and fauna, the park faces increasing pressure from human activities, including agriculture, logging, and settlement expansion. Our research aim was to assess how these activities impact vegetation quality and subsequently affect hippopotamus populations. Research data collection was based on categorizing various methods of human encroachment. Our findings indicate that regions experiencing high levels of encroachment exhibited significant declines in vegetation quality, which may limit the availability of food sources for hippopotamuses. Additionally, we conducted interviews with local communities to understand their perceptions of wildlife and land use. The results reveal a complex interplay between conservation efforts and the socioeconomic needs of local populations. The vegetation quality revealed a significant association on photo-period X2 = 19.917 df=4 P=0.001, animals habitat X2 = 21.138 df=4 P=0.000, River-water quality X2 = 10.687 df=4 P=0.03, and animal behavior X2 = 19.912 df=4 P=0.001 respectively. Additionally, human encroachment into the animals habitat recorded a significant link on food resources r=0.195 P2 = 3.063 df=4 P2 = 9.363 df=4 P<0.05 respectively. Also, fuel-wood gathering 50% recorded the highest encroachment threat, while poaching 38% and crop-farming 12% recorded the least threats respectively. This study emphasized the urgent need for integrated management strategies that balance human development and wildlife conservation to ensure the long-term survival of hippopotamus populations in Mbam et Djerem National Park. Our findings contribute to the broader discourse on habitat conservation in the face of anthropogenic pressures in Central Africa.},
 year = {2026}
}

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  • TY  - JOUR
T1  - The Impact of Human Encroachment in the Habitat of Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibious) in Mbam et Djerem National Park, Cameroon
AU  - Melle Ekane Maurice
AU  - Agbor James Ayamba
AU  - Ekili Betty Akuh
AU  - Nkwelle Emmanuel Ebong
AU  - Ebane Koubi Nadine
AU  - Yiedjou Blessing Desiree Rebecca
AU  - Elvis Tetuh Tendong
AU  - Etone Carl Ngole
AU  - Alusombom Godswill
AU  - Mary Ashu Mbi
Y1  - 2026/02/24
PY  - 2026
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.14
DO  - 10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.14
T2  - International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management
JF  - International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management
JO  - International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management
SP  - 35
EP  - 43
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2575-3061
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.14
AB  - This study explores the relationship between vegetation quality and human encroachment in the habitat of the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) at Mbam et Djerem National Park, Cameroon. As a critical habitat for diverse flora and fauna, the park faces increasing pressure from human activities, including agriculture, logging, and settlement expansion. Our research aim was to assess how these activities impact vegetation quality and subsequently affect hippopotamus populations. Research data collection was based on categorizing various methods of human encroachment. Our findings indicate that regions experiencing high levels of encroachment exhibited significant declines in vegetation quality, which may limit the availability of food sources for hippopotamuses. Additionally, we conducted interviews with local communities to understand their perceptions of wildlife and land use. The results reveal a complex interplay between conservation efforts and the socioeconomic needs of local populations. The vegetation quality revealed a significant association on photo-period X2 = 19.917 df=4 P=0.001, animals habitat X2 = 21.138 df=4 P=0.000, River-water quality X2 = 10.687 df=4 P=0.03, and animal behavior X2 = 19.912 df=4 P=0.001 respectively. Additionally, human encroachment into the animals habitat recorded a significant link on food resources r=0.195 P2 = 3.063 df=4 P2 = 9.363 df=4 P<0.05 respectively. Also, fuel-wood gathering 50% recorded the highest encroachment threat, while poaching 38% and crop-farming 12% recorded the least threats respectively. This study emphasized the urgent need for integrated management strategies that balance human development and wildlife conservation to ensure the long-term survival of hippopotamus populations in Mbam et Djerem National Park. Our findings contribute to the broader discourse on habitat conservation in the face of anthropogenic pressures in Central Africa.
VL  - 11
IS  - 1
ER  -

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