Mainstreaming Climate Change Considerations in Small-scale Sand Mining: Practical Challenges in Selected Villages in Mvomero District, Tanzania

Seraphina Bakta; John Ombella; Claudi Kilonzo

doi:doi:10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12

Research Article |

| Peer-Reviewed

Mainstreaming Climate Change Considerations in Small-scale Sand Mining: Practical Challenges in Selected Villages in Mvomero District, Tanzania

Seraphina Bakta

, John Ombella

, Claudi Kilonzo^*

Published in International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management (Volume 11, Issue 1)

Received: 23 November 2025 Accepted: 4 January 2026 Published: 26 January 2026

Views: Downloads:

Download PDF

Share This Article

Twitter
Linked In
Facebook

Abstract

Small-Scale Sand Mining (SSSM) is a common socio-economic activity that employs many members of rural communities in Tanzania. This is largely because it is practiced widely across nearly all districts in the country, where it provides earnings for youth, men and women and supports the construction sector, particularly in fast-growing urban areas. Nonetheless, SSSM appears to be less regulated compared to large-scale mining of precious metals, despite the fact that relevant mining, land and environmental laws formally apply to both scales of mining activities. Such a reality poses a significant threat, which is a pressing global concern, through practices such as clearance of indigenous vegetation, deep excavation, land degradation, and greenhouse gas emissions associated with sand transportation. Notably, this threat is exacerbated by legal, institutional and practical limitations in regulating SSSM. This study focuses on practical limitations, using Mvomero District as a model to exemplify practical limitations that impede mainstreaming of climate change considerations in SSSM activities. This paper adopted a qualitative research methodology. Data was collected through documentary review, interviews, focus group discussions and direct observation to examine how SSSM is practiced on the ground. It found that the manner in which SSSM activities are handled in Mvomero District may exacerbate climate change and its impacts, owing to practices such as unregulated expansion of mining areas beyond legal limits, minimal distance between adjacent SSSM sites, deep excavation that interferes with soil moisture and water tables, inadequate rehabilitation of exhausted sites, weak accountability mechanisms, and increased greenhouse gas emissions from sand transportation. The paper calls for concerted, consistent and inclusive efforts to prevent harmful SSSM practices from further contributing to climate variation in the District.

Published in	International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management (Volume 11, Issue 1)
DOI	10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12
Page(s)	13-22
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2026. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Climate Change, Climate Change Considerations, Small Scale Sand Mining, Tanzania

1. Introduction

Extraction of sand is reportedly on the rise at the global, regional and local levels

[1-4]

. Sand extraction takes place in various ways such as through large, medium and or small-scale operations commonly practiced along sea and lake shores, as well as on river banks and beds

[5-8]

. This study however, deals with Small-Scale Sand Mining (SSSM) which takes place on land. The choice of this form of sand mining is that, there is a concern of inadequate governance in sand mining at the global, national and local levels [particularly in developing countries

[9]

. Such inadequacy seems to extend to localities under chiefs most of whom preside over African local communities

[10]

However, prevalence of SSSM activities which are relatively less regulated than those for large-scale mining of precious metals, calls for their examination in the modern era of climate change challenges. It is also said that, sand extraction is on the rise due to the fact that naturally occurring sand is cheaper than other types of sand, such as recycled sand

[11]

. Consequently, unlike extraction of other minerals, sand mining demands relatively little capital

[12]

Although these facts represent developing countries in general, Tanzania is not an exception. Concerns of inadequate governance of SSSM are real. It is shown for example that, abandoned small-scale mining sites are common in some regions in Tanzania

[13]

. These sites contribute to land degradation and may exacerbate climate change if not regulated. Shitima shows that despite the existence of laws and policies, sand mining along river banks and beds is common in Dar es Salaam

[14]

. Similar concerns are noted by Kajubi, showing that illegal sand mining is taking place on the river banks and river beds and on land in Dar es Salaam, Dodoma, Kisarawe, and Morogoro

[15]

. Various studies show that, if not regulated, SSSM activities may contribute to other environmental and climate change concerns owing to their contribution to vegetation clearance, variation in water table levels and changes in chemical composition, among others

[16-17]

. The key question this paper addresses is: to what extent is the mainstreaming of climate change considerations in SSSM activities practically impeded in the selected villages of Mvomero district?

2. Methodology

This paper relied on a qualitative research design since all the data used are not numerical but are based on people’s opinions. In particular, the paper relied on both doctrinal and empirical data collected from the selected small-scale sand mining prone villages in Mvomero District. On the one hand, the doctrinal method involved a review of laws and other secondary sources such as; books, journals, reports, and online documents. On the other hand, the empirical data were collected through various methods such as: interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs), and direct observation.

In particular, a total of 31 individuals were purposively and randomly selected to participate in the research. On the one hand, the choice of a purposive approach, for example, enabled the researchers to identify experts such as the Mine Resident Officer and District Environmental Officer who have relevant expertise on sand mining and climate change issues. It also helped to identify those who are actively involved in sand mining activities. On the other hand, random sampling enabled researchers to access any member of the community in the selected villages. Given that, climate change impacts affect us all, a random approach was also used in the selection of participants.

Consequently, one person was interviewed while 30 individuals were involved in three FGDs composed of a maximum of ten members. According to Alan Bryman, research should involve between 20 to 60 participants if it is to provide convincing and publishable conclusions

[18]

. In particular, the grouping of the FDGs included: leaders, individuals involved in actual sand mining activities and the members of the general community.

In addition, the research involved the use of direct observation. This method required the researchers to physically visit the sand mining sites and document through photos the nature of the land form, depth of the excavation and vegetation clearance. Consequently, it allowed the researchers to observe how SSSM activities were taking place. The direct observation was preferred to complement the data collected via interviews and FGDs. To exemplify this, direct observation enabled the researchers to take photos that show the actual SSSM activities and their impacts on the environment.

Data collected both from the documentary review and field visits are analysed qualitatively. In particular, data gathered from the review of primary sources such as; statutes and case law are analysed based on statutory interpretation techniques such as; literal and/or golden rules

[19]

. However, data collected from the review of secondary sources, such as books and journal articles and those collected from the field are analysed based on their contents. To ease the analysis of data collected from the field, researchers prepared and posted them in a tabular form before themes were created and presented. The next part below presents the description of the selected villages in this study.

3. Description of the Selected Villages and the Essence of Climate Change Considerations in SSSM Activities

Two aspects are relevant for the presentation in this section. Firstly, the section begins by describing the SSSM prone villages in Mvomero District. It relies mostly on geographical aspects to enable their identification in the attached map. Secondly, it presents the essence of regulating climate change considerations in SSSM in Tanzania. In particular, it presents the Mining Act and its regulations as they are relevant to integrating climate conservation in SSSM activities.. Such a presentation is relevant as it creates a basis for the presentation of the empirical data on practical aspects that impede climate change considerations in SSSM activities in the selected villages.

3.1. Description of the Selected Villages

This study was carried out in two villages of Mvomero District in Mrogoro region, namely; Lugono and Sangasanga. On the one hand, the choice of Mvomero District can be explained in two ways: First, Morogoro region is reportedly experiencing environmental and land degradation ensuing from anthropogenic activities such as; agriculture and mining

[20]

. Notably, mining activities are linked to deforestation, which is also shown to be on the raise in Tanzania. In particular, Morogoro region is reported to be in a moderate category, where the deforestation rate is about 46%

[21]

. Further, mining activities are named as one of the potential socio-economic activities carried out in Mvomero District

[22]

Second, Morogoro is also reportedly experiencing recurrent land use conflicts that halt human development projects and may even claim peoples’ lives

[23]

. What is also intriguing is not only the role of land use planning in fuelling conflicts, but also, the role of climate change in fuelling land use conflicts among various land use stakeholders such as farmers and pastoralists. The nature and topography of Mvomero district which is mountainous, with low-laying land range and flood plains, that offers a broad land for various activity ranging from; natural resources conservation, food production, mining and human settlement. As may be noted below inadequate land use planning seems to be a stumbling block to the realization of such potentials in Mvomero district.

On the other hand, there is no specific account of practical limitations in mainstreaming climate change considerations in SSSM in Mvomero district. However, a preliminary survey of villages closer to Mzumbe University, noted that the two named villages (Sangasanga and Lugono) are prone to SSSM activities in Mvomero district. Consequently, this paper was intended to fill this gap.

Geographically, the first selected village, Sangasanga, borders Lugono to the north and Mzumbe to the south, respectively. To the west, Sangasanga village borders Kipera village, while Vikenge and Mafulu villages border it to the eastern side. The second selected village namely Lubungo borders Mafulu and Melela to the east and west respectively, while to the south, it borders two villages namely Sangasanga and Kipera. To the north, Lugono borders Kimambila village and Mkata Ranch.

3.2. The Essence of Climate Change Consideration in SSSM

Climate change is said to be a long-term variation of global, regional, or national climatic conditions evidenced by increasing temperature, humidity, wind and rainfall

[24]

.It is mainly triggered by human activities that lead to increase in greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions and/or the clearing of vegetation that would have otherwise absorbed these gases. Currently, the global target is to reduce the increase in temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial level

[25]

. To achieve this, Tanzania as part of the global community should change its approach to environment and climate related factors without which further increases in global warming may have irreversible impacts on climate. In Tanzania for instance, severe impacts of climate change such as; drought and floods are already evident

[26]

. It is also shown that an increase in temperature has led to the reduction of glaciers at the top of Mount Kilimanjaro;

[27, 28]

and the rise of sea level, whereby some islands are reportedly disappearing in the Indian Ocean

[29]

To curb the potential impacts of anthropogenic activities to exacerbating climate change concerns, Tanzania has enacted laws and policies to regulate small scale mining (SSM). According to the policy, Tanzania may not proceed with business as usual in the regulation of development activities in her quest to address climate change. Legally, there are several laws to regulate mining activities ranging from those that regulate environment, forestry, land use plan and water resources. However, this part is dedicated to the Mining Act and its regulation as discussed below.

The Mining Act prohibits carrying out mining without a license. The relevant license in this case is the Primary Mining License (PML). Although it is mandatory under the Act to apply for the license before one undertakes SSSM, the regulations are silent on this. Such a silence may send a wrong perception that SSSM activities are not regulated under the law. In addition, the mining laws regulate mining activities exclusively from other laws. The Mining Act, for example, requires mining activities to be carried out at least a distance of 200 meters from water resources. Such a distance is higher compared the requirement of 60 metres set by the Environmental Management Act. What is strange is where the regulations set the distance of 20 meters contrary to the Mining Act. To avoid exacerbation of climate change in SSSM prone villages, the paper argues for the adoption of the 200 meters as the standard to give force the precautionary principle noted above.

With respect to environmental conservation in the SSSM activities, the regulations are categorical on the duty of all mineral rights holders to prepare an Environmental Protection Plan (EPP). The role of EPP is to show the potential harm SSSM may cause and how operators are prepared to address such concerns. Despite this requirement, the assessment of mining activities in the country shows that deforestation is increasing with increasing mining activities

[30]

. Notably, this concern is even more alarming with respect to SSSM taking place without adequate regulations and or monitoring. As such, reports show that those directly involved in SSSM are not aware of the environmental requirements in the sector. As such, they tend to confuse the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), which is compulsory for large-scale mining and the EPP which is required in small-scale mining

[31]

. It is also argued that the EPP is not a statutorily provided requirement and less participatory since the local communities are not involved in its process

[32]

. This is so despite of the fact that section 138 of the Mining Act requires mineral rights holders to comply with environmental standards under the law regulating environmental issues in Tanzania.

Generally, the discussion in this part shows that there are laws that may be relied to regulate SSSM activities. Despite of the fact that laws lack consistency still they establish standards to guard against climate change. Among such standards are; licensing, nexus between SSSM activities and ecological resources, environmental rehabilitation of the SSSM sites to name but a few. The discussion below presents the practical realities of SSSM activities and their nexus s to climate change in selected villages in Mvomero District.

4. Practical Limitations to Mainstreaming Climate Change Considerations in SSSM Activities

This part presents the discussion and analysis of data collected via field visitation in the two named villages (Lugono and Sangasanga) in Mvomero District. The data were obtained via; interview, FGDs and observation. The discussion aims at exposing the extent to which climate change have been factored in SSSM activities in the two selected villages. This section puts forward the argument that, despite the existence of laws relevant to mainstreaming climate change consideration in SSSM activities, practical challenges continue to impede their efficiency in the selected villages.

4.1. Existence of SSSM and Their Formality in the Selected Villages

The available data from the field indicates that there are intensive SSSM activities in the two selected villages. To signal the intensity of the mining activities, participants acknowledge that sand mining activities offer employment opportunities to most youth, men and women in the two villages. In particular, Mvomero district has about 200 licensed SSSM sites. This signals that SSSM activities in the selected villages are formal. A formal SSSM is practiced after the relevant license and permits have been issued. Again, it is practiced over the identified land and complies with EPP procedure from the beginning to the closure era.

Notably, SSSM activities in the selected villages are carried out in private lands rather than communal lands. This means that the process of issuing mining license does involve the land owner and the issuing authority, in this case, the Mining Commission. It is also reported that the District Council is responsible for evaluating the environmental issues pending the actual mining. Consequently, local communities adjacent to SSSM are largely not involved in the decision to issue sand mining licenses. This happens while the communities bear the cost of the gross impact from the SSSM activities.

Also, data gathered from both villages show that although there are formal SSSM activities, informal ones are also practiced. Both the data from the villages, sand miners and the District Environmental Officer acknowledge that informal SSSM activities are practiced at night and mostly in trenches and/or open spaces. Here, informal SSSM activities refer to those which are practiced without a license, and they are practiced on land that is not meant for sand mining, for example, open space and/or trenches.

4.2. The Nexus Between SSSM and Climate Change in the Selected Villages

The review of documents above shows that there is a nexus between SSSM and climate change. In particular, in the selected villages, data indicates that the link between the SSSM activities and climate change takes different forms. Firstly, the clearance of indigenous vegetation cover exposes the soil to erosion, and deep excavation of sand interferes with the water table, that in turn affects the vegetation cover and access to water.

…mining activity, including sand mining, is an enemy to environmental protection. Excavation causes the cutting of trees, thus leading to the loss of natural vegetation. For example, in the areas of Lubungo and Mafuru, where sand mining takes place on a large scale, these areas have lost a large amount of natural vegetation.

Download: Download full-size image

Figure 1. A photo showing sand being packed in a lorry for transportation to Morogoro Municipality.

Source: Researchers’ direct observation upon visitation of Sangasanga SSSM

To exemplify the nature and impacts of clearing vegetation, data shows that such villages have experienced long-term droughts and invasion by wild animals such as elephants searching for pasture and water. As such, the two limit the community members from engaging in meaningful socio-economic activities such as food production, owing to fear of wild animals and/or excessive drought.

Secondly, most of the sands mined in these villages are seldom used in the villages but are influenced by the growth of the Morogoro Municipality that is located almost 30 kilometers from these villages. This means that, sand has to be transported from the sites to Morogoro Municipality.

…considering the geographical location of the Mvomero District, the District contributes or gives a larger amount of sand to the municipality than all the districts of the Morogoro region. That is to say, over 90 percent of the constructions taking place in Morogoro Municipality depend on sands extracted from Mvomero District.

As may be noted in the map above, Morogoro Municipality seems to be enclosed by the Mvomero District, from the north, east and south sides. Only the western side borders Morogoro Municipality borders with Morogoro Rural District. Although SSSM activities rely on manual work, instead of mechanized equipment, the transportation is commonly done by both small and large size lorries powered by diesel. Consequently, the lorries emit GHG along their route to and from SSSM sites. It is noted above that, GHG are responsible for exacerbating climate change impacts.

4.3. Size of the Land Subjected to SSSM

Legally, the land to be subjected to SSSM activities is limited to 5 hectares. The essence of limiting the size is, among other, to allow other socio-economic activities such as; food production, conservation and recreation to take place. Practically, SSSM activities in the selected villages signal that this legal requirement is not adhered to. As such, the SSSM activities take place on land without limitations to size. Given the fact that most SSSM sites are held in privately owned land, once the license has been issued, the entire land may be subjected to mining activities. As long as the owner has procured a license and the land is rich in sand, SSSM will take place without limit. Through observation, it was noted that in some mining sites, landowners have subjected over half of their land to sand mining, operating under the assumption that the permissible limit for extraction is defined solely by the boundaries of their land.

4.4. Distance from One Site to Another

The distance from one SSSM site to the other is one of the relevant factors to consider in mainstreaming climate change considerations in such activities. It is not only relevant for avoiding the exposure of a wide area to SSSM impacts but also relevant to safeguarding critical infrastructure such as; pipelines, electricity and telecommunication lines, road and railways, to name but a few. It is noted above that laws and regulations in Tanzania are silent on the distance between SSSM sites. Such a legal gap seems to have a significant impact on climate regulation in SSSM activities. As such, in practical realities, SSSM sites are carried next to each other such that one can hardly tell the demarcation between the two.

You visited the sites, and it is hoped that you have observed for yourself, that there is not a significant distance from one site to another. Permits are allocated to cover the whole land of the applicant. Therefore, he can simply mine the whole land he owns, the neighbour does the same.

Although there is a common concern that when SSSM sites are adjacent to each other they pose a great threat, especially to trigger climate change, field responses show that sites of a kind are difficult to regulate especially in places where SSSM are taking place on a private owned land.

4.5. Depth of the Excavation

The depth of excavation relates to how deep the SSSM activities take place. The depth is relevant for three major purposes; first, the need to keep the soil moisture; second, the need to guarantee non-interference with the water table; and third, the need to guarantee easy rehabilitation, especially through re-forestation. Despite these expected ends, the analysis of laws has depicted that in Tanzania, mining law and regulations are silent on regulation of the depth of excavations. As a result, available records, as shown below, indicate that the excavation may take place even as deep as three meters, a fact that threatens the spread of climatic change.

Download: Download full-size image

Figure 2. A photo showing the depth of the excavation.

Source: Researchers’ direct observation upon visitation of Sangsanga village

4.6. Rehabilitation of the SSSM Sites

Rehabilitation signals the ending phase of any mining site. It is noted that, it has to be contemplated and planned even before mining actually commenced, if at all it is to yield sustainable results

[33]

. It is noted above that, almost all SSSM sites in the selected villages are formal. Consequently, they are licensed and are expected to meet the conditions under the licenses with respect to environmental preservation in the closure of the site. Contrary to this, the practice indicates that most SSSM sites are abandoned. To exemplify this, after vegetation is cleared and sand is excavated, the deep pits are not refilled with soil and no trees are planted at the sites.

In particular, two reasons are advanced as being behind this gross practice by SSSM license holders. Firstly, it relates to cost. Legally, the one who pollutes has to incur the cost to undo it. Hence, the license holders are responsible to refilling and planting trees on the exhausted SSSM sites. However, the data shows that the cost for refilling seems to be prohibitive for the license holders to be able to shoulder. It is noted above that sand is naturally occurring, and is also considered cheap and hence the income generated from such activities may not be expected to be high.

Secondly, it relates to environmental conservation awareness campaigns. At the district level, environmental officers are expected, among other things, to raise peoples’ awareness on the need and benefit to conserve the environment. Such campaigns are expected to influence communities to plant and protect trees to halt the desertification induced by human activities such as SSSM. Despite this reality, little if no such campaigns are carried out in these villages. It is stated that, a campaign of a kind was done once with inadequate tree seedlings to plant, leave alone the fact that it was done at the Health Center and not in the SSSM-prone sites.

From the two challenges noted above, responses have indicated that the main challenge is inadequate funding. To exemplify this, the Mvomero District Council derived revenue from SSSM activities of about one hundred million TSHS in the financial year 2023. Despite such revenue, which is also relatively little, the Council has no budget for rehabilitation programmes owing to the fact that, principally, the license holders are responsible for refilling the exhausted sites. While the government does not concern itself with supporting refilling exercises, license holders claim an inability to refill excavated lands due to high associated costs. As a result, there are many abandoned SSSM sites in both villages (Sangasanga and Lugono) as shown in the photo below.

Download: Download full-size image

Figure 3. A photo indicating abandoned SSSM sites in Lugono village.

Source: Researchers’ direct observation upon visitation of Lugono village.

Download: Download full-size image

Figure 4. A photo showing abandoned SSSM sites in Sangasanga village.

Source: Researchers’ direct observation upon visitation of Sangasanga village

4.7. Accountability in SSSM

Generally, in order to ensure that climate change considerations are mainstreamed in SSSM activities; laws have penalties in place for those who contravene them. Among the contraventions include carrying out SSSM activities without a license and/or abandoning the SSSM sites. The essence of such prohibition is that when such acts are committed, they tend to affect the public and contribute to other unexpected consequences. To exemplify this, abandoned SSSM sites are used as dumping sites, and during the rainy season, they act as breeding grounds for mosquitoes.

Notably, despite widespread abandonment of SSSM sites and the existence of illegal sand mining, little if any, penalty has been issued against such perpetrators of environmental ruination. Available data shows that only once SSSM activities were fined for being carried out without a license. However, the fine was never paid, and that illegal sand mining is still taking place. Such a laxity is said to be caused by a number of reasons. Firstly, SSSM activities are carried out as a necessary activity to sustain people’s lives, leaving little of the earnings available to pay the fine. Secondly, in order to have those contravening the mining laws held accountable, there is a need for effective monitoring and complaints registered to the relevant offices, say the District Environmental Officer. Consequently, when monitoring is inadequate and if there are no registered complaints, it is hard to have such perpetrators held accountable. Thirdly, since SSSM largely takes place on private land, it limits the possibility of reporting complaints. Notably, the gross impacts accruing from SSSM do not necessarily discriminate between the owner of the plot subjected to SSSM activities and an ordinary villager.

The discussion in this section reveals some practical limitations holding back the legal and policy requirement for mainstreaming climate change consideration in SSSM activities. Among these practices are: conversion of a formal SSSM activity into informal once the sites are exhausted; existence of informal SSSM activities, inadequate regulation of the size of the land subjected to SSSM; distance between SSSM sites, and adoption of deep excavation exposing the soil to erosion. Others are, impunity from liability to those involved in informal SSSM and the high demand of sand in Morogoro Municipality that influence its transportation from the villages leading to emission of GHGs.

5. Discussion

It is noted above that there are policies and laws regulating SSSM activities and may be relied to mainstream climate change consideration accordingly. Despite of existence of such laws, still the manner in which SSSM activities are carried in the selected villages seems to exacerbate climate change instead. The analysis of presentation above may be discussed in two main themes namely; legal inconsistency and inadequate governance of the SSSM activities in the selected villages. To begin with legal inconsistency is noted where the mining regulations contradict with the principal legislation on three accounts namely; mandatory licensing of SSSM activities; distance to keep from water resources and EPP requirements. Notably, these inconsistencies are noted owing to the fact that the Mining Act although it was enacted in 2010, it has undergone several revisions than it is the case of the regulations. Legally, where the subsidiary legislation contradicts with the principal legislation, the provision of the principal legislation applies. Consequently, despite the legal inconsistency the legal position as provided under the Mining Act with respect to requirement for license and distance to keep from water resources overrides those provided for in the regulations. However, these inconsistencies may be a sanctuary to those who are profit driven and less environmental and or climate conscious.

Next is inadequate governance of SSSM activities seems to exacerbate climate change impacts in SSSM prone villages in Mvomero District. The above presentation related to practices of mainstreaming climate change consideration in SSSM activities signal that largely SSSM activities begin formally. That is to say, through formal application and granting of mining licenses. However, they end with mining sites abandoned instead. Such a weakness coupled with reports of illegal sand mining indicates casts a doubt on the extent of monitoring of the SSSM activities with the view to guarantee they do not exacerbate climate change. It is worth to argue here that, even where the law provides for EPP to safeguard environmental standards in SSSM activities, absence of or inadequate monitoring and accountability would not yield to what the lawmaker intended. The reviewed literatures above also hint on the governance issue in the SSSM activities, at the global, regional and national levels..

6. General Conclusion and Recommendations

Climatic variation is real all over the globe as no community is spared from its impacts. Tanzania and Mvomero District in particular also experience climatic change challenges regularly. It is noted that human activities such as SSSM are not only responsible for its happening but also catalyse its occurrence in the future if efforts are not adopted to halt it. Notably, Tanzania has in place laws to regulate activities such as SSSM as a means to avoid their contribution to exacerbating climate change. The findings above have shown that despite having laws in place to regulate SSSM, it is being defeated with not only its inadequacy and inconsistency but also inadequate monitoring to guarantee compliance and accountability of those involved SSSM.

The paper recommends for legal reform to address the inadequacy and inconsistency noted above. Specifically, with the law should provide for; depth of excavation, distance between one SSMSM site and the other and mandatory requirement of license in carrying out SSSM. Also, to address the inconsistency, the distance to be kept from water resources need to be realigned between Mining Act and its regulation, with preference to keep the distance of 200 metres provided for under them Mining Act. In addition, the paper recommends that, clean energy powered engines should be preferred in sand transportation to limit GHGs emission. Further, it calls for a critical need for the government to allocate a continuous budget to enhance monitoring of SSM activities, creation of environmental awareness and supporting environmental rehabilitation and tree planting campaigns in SSSM prone villages.

The study also recommends further studies on:

1) The extent to which biodiversity and ecosystem in the SSSM prone villages are impacted and their consequences to local communities, and

2) The social and health impacts of SSSM activities to local communities adjacent to SSSM sites in SSSM prone villages.

Abbreviations

EIA	Environmental Impact Assessment
EPP	Environmental Protection Plan
FGDs	Focus Group Discussions
GHG	Greenhouse Gas
PML	Primary Mining License
SSM	Small Scale Mining
SSSM	Small Scale Sand Mining
TSHS	Tanzania Shillings

Acknowledgments

We express our sincere gratitude to Mzumbe University for the invaluable logistical and financial support extended to us throughout the course of this research. The University’s commitment to research development significantly contributed to the successful completion of this work. We are also grateful to Mr. France Matungwa, whose assistance during the data collection phase was instrumental.

Funding

This research was funded by the Directorate of Research and Postgraduate Studies of Mzumbe University through the University’s Small Research Grants program. The funding provided supported key phases of the research, including data collection, analysis, and the eventual publication of this paper.

Author Contributions

Seraphina Bakta: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

John Ombella: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Claudi Kilonzo: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Conflicting Interests

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1]	Nakiya Noorbhai, et al. ‘Continental Mapping of African Sand Mining Highlights Limited Benefits for Local Infrastructure And Socio-Economic Development,’ (2025) 8 One Earth 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2025.101204
[2]	Aurora Torres, et al. ‘Reducing Sand Mining’s Growing Toll on Marine Biodiversity,’ (2025) 8 One Earth. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2025.101202
[3]	Lars Iversen and others, ‘Freshwater Ecosystem Transitions Due to Artisanal Sand Mining in Rwanda, Africa’ (2024) 97 Science of the Total Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.177792
[4]	Eline Rentier and Erik Cammeraat, ‘The Environmental Impacts of River Sand Mining’ (2022) Science of the Total Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155877
[5]	Marius Aparicio, et al. ‘Contribution of Sandy Beaches to the Global Marine Silicon Cycle.’ (2025) 18 Nature Geoscience 154. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.27087736.v1
[6]	Tracey MacKenzie, ‘The Sand Agenda: Transnational Sand Extraction, Social Injustice, and the Urgent Need for Global Governance,’ (2025) 94 Michigan Journal of Political Science 1001 https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/mjps/wp-content/uploads/sites/1255/2025/09/FinalMJPSW25-5-compressed.pdf#page=94
[7]	Pandey N. S. Kumari and Kumar Gaurav, ‘Sand Mining: A Silent Threat to the River Ecosystem,’ (2024) Springer International Publishing, 109 https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-49163-4_6
[8]	Kai Yuen, et al. ‘Extent of illegal sand mining in the Mekong Delta’ (2024) 5 Communications Earth & Environment 31. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-023-01161-1
[9]	Mette Bendixen and others, ‘Drivers and Effects of Construction-Sand Mining in Sub-Saharan Africa’ (2023) 16 Extractive Industry and Society 10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2023.101364
[10]	Siyabulela Manona, Thembela Kepo and Deon Villiers, ‘Sand Mining Governance in the Post -Apartheid South Africa: Interlegalities of Resources Extraction on the Wild Coast’ (2024) 20 The Extractive Industries and Society 101542. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2024.101542
[11]	Dhana R. Raju, ‘Critical Minerals-U-Th, Recoverable from the Placer Valuable Heavy Minerals in Mineral Sand Deposits,’ (2025) 10 International Journal of Research and Innovation in Applied Science 807. https://doi.org/10.51584/IJRIAS.2025.10030061
[12]	National Audit Office, ‘Performance Audit Report on the Provision of Support to Small-Scale Miners’ (National Audit Office 2024). para 3.2.1. https://www.nao.go.tz/reports/view/performance-audit-report-on-the-provision-of-support-to-small-scale-miners
[13]	National Audit Office, ‘Study on the Status of Environment with a Focus on Land Degradation, Forest Degradation and Deforestation’ (Controller and Auditor General of Tanzania 2018). pp 37-38. https://www.nao.go.tz/uploads/reports/Performance_Audit_Report_on_the_Status_of_Environment_with_a_Focus_on_Land_Degradation__Forest_Degradation_and_Deforestation.pdf
[14]	Christina Shitima and Bert Suyken, ‘Formalization of Sand Mining in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania’ (2023) 82 Resource Policy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2023.103589
[15]	Francis Kajubi, ‘Special Report: Sand Mining: A Dilemma of Job Creation and Worsening Climate Change Risks -3’ The Guardian (Dar es Salaam, 4 September 2024) https://www.ippmedia.com/the-guardian/business/read/special-report-sand-mining-a-dilemma-of-job-creation-and-worsening-climate-change-risks-3-2024-09-03-153900 (accessed 12 March 2025).
[16]	Tran T. Kim, et al. ‘The Impact of Sand Mining on the Bed Morphology of the Tien River, Mekong Delta, Vietnam’ (2025) 84 Environmental Earth Sciences 1. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12665-024-12079-y
[17]	Edward Park, ‘Sand Mining in the Mekong Delta: Extent and Compounded Impacts’ (2024) 924 Science of the Total Environment 171620. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171620
[18]	Alan Bryman, Social Research Methods (4th edn, Oxford University Press 2012). p 425.
[19]	Williams Granville, Learning the Law (15th edn, Sweet & Maxwell 2013).
[20]	Saidi Kambi, et al. ‘Assessment of Precipitation and Temperature Trends in Kilosa District, Morogoro, Tanzania’ (2025) 24 Asian Journal of Environment & Ecology 1. Doi: https://doi.org/10.9734/ajee/2025/v24i5691
[21]	VPO, ‘National Environmental Master Plan for Strategic Interventions 2022-2032’ para 2.1 and 3.1. https://www.vpo.go.tz/uploads/files/MASTER%20PLAN-English_eBOOK_FINAL.pdf
[22]	United Republic of Tanzania (PMORALG), ‘Mvomero District Investment Profile.’
[23]	Venance Shilingi and Eliza Mwakasangula, ‘Navigating Conflict: A Cross-Sectional Study of Farmers and Pastoralists Conflicts in Kilosa, Tanzania’ (2024) 35 Global Change, Peace & Security. https://doi.org/10.1080/14781158.2024.2382694
[24]	Mahato Anupama, ‘Climate Change and its Impact on Agriculture’ (2014) 4 International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications 1; Piers M. Forster, et al. ‘Indicators of Global Climate Change 2023: Annual update of key indicators of the state of the climate system and human influence,’ (2024) Earth System Science Data 2625. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-2625-2024
[25]	The Paris Agreement 2015, article 4(1) (b).
[26]	United Republic of Tanzania-Vice President’s Office, ‘Third State of the Environmental Report’ (2019) https://www.vpo.go.tz/uploads/publications/en-1592550740-State%20of%20Environment-pdf (accessed 12 April 2025).
[27]	Maria G. Njau, ‘Climate Coloniality and The Burden of Tree Planting among Youth in Tanzania,’ (2025) Intercultural Education 1. https://doi.org/10.1080/14675986.2025.2534756;
[28]	Anne Hinzmann, et al. ‘Tropical Glacier Loss in East Africa: Recent Areal Extents on Kilimanjaro, Mount Kenya, and in the Rwenzori Range from High-resolution Remote Sensing Data,’ (2024) 3 Environmental Research: Climate 011003. https://doi.org/10.1088/2752-5295/ad1fd7
[29]	VPO, ‘National Climate Change Response Strategy 2021-2026’ p 53. https://www.taees.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/NCCRS-2021-2026_-Final_PK.pdf
[30]	Kristina Douglass and Jago Cooper, ‘Archaeology, Environmental Justice, and Climate Change on Islands of the Caribbean and Southwestern Indian Ocean’ (2020) 117 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 8254. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1914211117
[31]	The Citizen Reporter, ‘Confusion Reigns in Small-Scale Mining’ The Citizen (2021) https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/tanzania/business/confusion-reigns-in-small-scale-mining-2580720
[32]	Esther Somi, ‘Institutional Gaps in Tanzania’s Environmental Regulations,’ (2022) 83 South African Journal of Social & Economic Policy 51. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/ejc-nagenda_v2022_n83_a10
[33]	Mike Mentis, ‘Environmental rehabilitation of damaged land’ (2020) 7(1) Forest Ecosystems 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40663-020-00233-4

Cite This Article

Plain Text BibTeX RIS

APA Style

Bakta, S., Ombella, J., Kilonzo, C. (2026). Mainstreaming Climate Change Considerations in Small-scale Sand Mining: Practical Challenges in Selected Villages in Mvomero District, Tanzania. International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management, 11(1), 13-22. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12

Copy | Download

ACS Style

Bakta, S.; Ombella, J.; Kilonzo, C. Mainstreaming Climate Change Considerations in Small-scale Sand Mining: Practical Challenges in Selected Villages in Mvomero District, Tanzania. Int. J. Nat. Resour. Ecol. Manag. 2026, 11(1), 13-22. doi: 10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12

Copy | Download

AMA Style

Bakta S, Ombella J, Kilonzo C. Mainstreaming Climate Change Considerations in Small-scale Sand Mining: Practical Challenges in Selected Villages in Mvomero District, Tanzania. Int J Nat Resour Ecol Manag. 2026;11(1):13-22. doi: 10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12,
  author = {Seraphina Bakta and John Ombella and Claudi Kilonzo},
  title = {Mainstreaming Climate Change Considerations in Small-scale Sand Mining: Practical Challenges in Selected Villages in Mvomero District, Tanzania},
  journal = {International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management},
  volume = {11},
  number = {1},
  pages = {13-22},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijnrem.20261101.12},
  abstract = {Small-Scale Sand Mining (SSSM) is a common socio-economic activity that employs many members of rural communities in Tanzania. This is largely because it is practiced widely across nearly all districts in the country, where it provides earnings for youth, men and women and supports the construction sector, particularly in fast-growing urban areas. Nonetheless, SSSM appears to be less regulated compared to large-scale mining of precious metals, despite the fact that relevant mining, land and environmental laws formally apply to both scales of mining activities. Such a reality poses a significant threat, which is a pressing global concern, through practices such as clearance of indigenous vegetation, deep excavation, land degradation, and greenhouse gas emissions associated with sand transportation. Notably, this threat is exacerbated by legal, institutional and practical limitations in regulating SSSM. This study focuses on practical limitations, using Mvomero District as a model to exemplify practical limitations that impede mainstreaming of climate change considerations in SSSM activities. This paper adopted a qualitative research methodology. Data was collected through documentary review, interviews, focus group discussions and direct observation to examine how SSSM is practiced on the ground. It found that the manner in which SSSM activities are handled in Mvomero District may exacerbate climate change and its impacts, owing to practices such as unregulated expansion of mining areas beyond legal limits, minimal distance between adjacent SSSM sites, deep excavation that interferes with soil moisture and water tables, inadequate rehabilitation of exhausted sites, weak accountability mechanisms, and increased greenhouse gas emissions from sand transportation. The paper calls for concerted, consistent and inclusive efforts to prevent harmful SSSM practices from further contributing to climate variation in the District.},
 year = {2026}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - Mainstreaming Climate Change Considerations in Small-scale Sand Mining: Practical Challenges in Selected Villages in Mvomero District, Tanzania
AU  - Seraphina Bakta
AU  - John Ombella
AU  - Claudi Kilonzo
Y1  - 2026/01/26
PY  - 2026
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12
DO  - 10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12
T2  - International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management
JF  - International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management
JO  - International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management
SP  - 13
EP  - 22
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2575-3061
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12
AB  - Small-Scale Sand Mining (SSSM) is a common socio-economic activity that employs many members of rural communities in Tanzania. This is largely because it is practiced widely across nearly all districts in the country, where it provides earnings for youth, men and women and supports the construction sector, particularly in fast-growing urban areas. Nonetheless, SSSM appears to be less regulated compared to large-scale mining of precious metals, despite the fact that relevant mining, land and environmental laws formally apply to both scales of mining activities. Such a reality poses a significant threat, which is a pressing global concern, through practices such as clearance of indigenous vegetation, deep excavation, land degradation, and greenhouse gas emissions associated with sand transportation. Notably, this threat is exacerbated by legal, institutional and practical limitations in regulating SSSM. This study focuses on practical limitations, using Mvomero District as a model to exemplify practical limitations that impede mainstreaming of climate change considerations in SSSM activities. This paper adopted a qualitative research methodology. Data was collected through documentary review, interviews, focus group discussions and direct observation to examine how SSSM is practiced on the ground. It found that the manner in which SSSM activities are handled in Mvomero District may exacerbate climate change and its impacts, owing to practices such as unregulated expansion of mining areas beyond legal limits, minimal distance between adjacent SSSM sites, deep excavation that interferes with soil moisture and water tables, inadequate rehabilitation of exhausted sites, weak accountability mechanisms, and increased greenhouse gas emissions from sand transportation. The paper calls for concerted, consistent and inclusive efforts to prevent harmful SSSM practices from further contributing to climate variation in the District.
VL  - 11
IS  - 1
ER  -

Copy | Download

Author Information

Seraphina Bakta

Public Law Department, Mzumbe University, Morogoro, United Republic of Tanzania

Biography: Seraphina Bakta (Ph.D) is a Senior Lecturer at the Faculty of Law, Mzumbe University in Tanzania. She holds a Ph.D (University of Cape Town); LLM (University of Cape Town) and an LLB (Mzumbe University). Her current research interest include human rights; children’s rights; women rights; restorative justice; environmental and climate change law.

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1011-4330
John Ombella

Private Law Department, Mzumbe University, Morogoro, United Republic of Tanzania

Biography: John Ombella is a Lecturer at the Faculty of Law, Mzumbe University. He holds LL.B (Mzumbe University); LL.M (University of Western Cape); and LL.D (OUT); Certificate on Sustainable Development and Human Rights Law (Antwerp University-Belgium 2017), Certificate on Climate Change International Legal Regime (UNITAR/UNEP 2024), Founder and Director of Mine-host Communities Initiative (MHCI 2022). He is an Advocate of the High Court and Subordinate Courts – Tanzania.

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0009-0002-2346-3932
Claudi Kilonzo

Public Law Department, Mzumbe University, Morogoro, United Republic of Tanzania

Biography: Claudi Kilonzo is an Assistant Lecturer at the Faculty of Law, Mzumbe University. He holds LL.B (Mzumbe University) and LL.M (Mzumbe University). His research interest is on environmental and climate change law.

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0009-0003-6175-7154

Download PDF

Submit an Article

Plain Text BibTeX RIS

APA Style

Bakta, S., Ombella, J., Kilonzo, C. (2026). Mainstreaming Climate Change Considerations in Small-scale Sand Mining: Practical Challenges in Selected Villages in Mvomero District, Tanzania. International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management, 11(1), 13-22. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12

Copy | Download

ACS Style

Bakta, S.; Ombella, J.; Kilonzo, C. Mainstreaming Climate Change Considerations in Small-scale Sand Mining: Practical Challenges in Selected Villages in Mvomero District, Tanzania. Int. J. Nat. Resour. Ecol. Manag. 2026, 11(1), 13-22. doi: 10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12

Copy | Download

AMA Style

Bakta S, Ombella J, Kilonzo C. Mainstreaming Climate Change Considerations in Small-scale Sand Mining: Practical Challenges in Selected Villages in Mvomero District, Tanzania. Int J Nat Resour Ecol Manag. 2026;11(1):13-22. doi: 10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12,
  author = {Seraphina Bakta and John Ombella and Claudi Kilonzo},
  title = {Mainstreaming Climate Change Considerations in Small-scale Sand Mining: Practical Challenges in Selected Villages in Mvomero District, Tanzania},
  journal = {International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management},
  volume = {11},
  number = {1},
  pages = {13-22},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijnrem.20261101.12},
  abstract = {Small-Scale Sand Mining (SSSM) is a common socio-economic activity that employs many members of rural communities in Tanzania. This is largely because it is practiced widely across nearly all districts in the country, where it provides earnings for youth, men and women and supports the construction sector, particularly in fast-growing urban areas. Nonetheless, SSSM appears to be less regulated compared to large-scale mining of precious metals, despite the fact that relevant mining, land and environmental laws formally apply to both scales of mining activities. Such a reality poses a significant threat, which is a pressing global concern, through practices such as clearance of indigenous vegetation, deep excavation, land degradation, and greenhouse gas emissions associated with sand transportation. Notably, this threat is exacerbated by legal, institutional and practical limitations in regulating SSSM. This study focuses on practical limitations, using Mvomero District as a model to exemplify practical limitations that impede mainstreaming of climate change considerations in SSSM activities. This paper adopted a qualitative research methodology. Data was collected through documentary review, interviews, focus group discussions and direct observation to examine how SSSM is practiced on the ground. It found that the manner in which SSSM activities are handled in Mvomero District may exacerbate climate change and its impacts, owing to practices such as unregulated expansion of mining areas beyond legal limits, minimal distance between adjacent SSSM sites, deep excavation that interferes with soil moisture and water tables, inadequate rehabilitation of exhausted sites, weak accountability mechanisms, and increased greenhouse gas emissions from sand transportation. The paper calls for concerted, consistent and inclusive efforts to prevent harmful SSSM practices from further contributing to climate variation in the District.},
 year = {2026}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - Mainstreaming Climate Change Considerations in Small-scale Sand Mining: Practical Challenges in Selected Villages in Mvomero District, Tanzania
AU  - Seraphina Bakta
AU  - John Ombella
AU  - Claudi Kilonzo
Y1  - 2026/01/26
PY  - 2026
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12
DO  - 10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12
T2  - International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management
JF  - International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management
JO  - International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management
SP  - 13
EP  - 22
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2575-3061
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnrem.20261101.12
AB  - Small-Scale Sand Mining (SSSM) is a common socio-economic activity that employs many members of rural communities in Tanzania. This is largely because it is practiced widely across nearly all districts in the country, where it provides earnings for youth, men and women and supports the construction sector, particularly in fast-growing urban areas. Nonetheless, SSSM appears to be less regulated compared to large-scale mining of precious metals, despite the fact that relevant mining, land and environmental laws formally apply to both scales of mining activities. Such a reality poses a significant threat, which is a pressing global concern, through practices such as clearance of indigenous vegetation, deep excavation, land degradation, and greenhouse gas emissions associated with sand transportation. Notably, this threat is exacerbated by legal, institutional and practical limitations in regulating SSSM. This study focuses on practical limitations, using Mvomero District as a model to exemplify practical limitations that impede mainstreaming of climate change considerations in SSSM activities. This paper adopted a qualitative research methodology. Data was collected through documentary review, interviews, focus group discussions and direct observation to examine how SSSM is practiced on the ground. It found that the manner in which SSSM activities are handled in Mvomero District may exacerbate climate change and its impacts, owing to practices such as unregulated expansion of mining areas beyond legal limits, minimal distance between adjacent SSSM sites, deep excavation that interferes with soil moisture and water tables, inadequate rehabilitation of exhausted sites, weak accountability mechanisms, and increased greenhouse gas emissions from sand transportation. The paper calls for concerted, consistent and inclusive efforts to prevent harmful SSSM practices from further contributing to climate variation in the District.
VL  - 11
IS  - 1
ER  -

Copy | Download